The level of metalloproteins in the plasma is increased, and the level of RAS proteins is decreased, which results in the activator protein-1 (AP-1), by PI3K/Akt, JNK, p38 MAPK, and ERK signaling pathways [73]
Elevated levels of homocysteine have been linked to increased oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and activation of various pathways associated with the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy
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Some patients benefit from injections alone
Also, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling is associated with mitochondrial homeostasis, MAPK1/3 potently inhibit mitochondrial biogenesis (Zhu et al., 2012)