doi: 10.1128/JB.00659-15 10 AnwarM.MehtaD
You can disagree with it all you want
each carries a specific instruction to a cell, whether that is maintain telomeres or protect the mitochondria. The second group is metabolic cofactors: NAD+ and glutathione are not peptides but small molecules the cell needs to run its energy and antioxidant systems
However, because the study was not blinded, placebo-controlled, or randomized, it's not possible to determine if Pycnogenol actually improved symptoms
Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 18:671684
ROS-mediated cell signaling As outlined above, ROS have origin from two main sources: mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and processes of cellular response to xenobiotics, bacteria, and cytokines during which ROS are formed as a part of either signal transduction pathways or a cellular defense mechanism (Finkel 2011)